Prescription drugs Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Prescription drugs - Research Paper Example The large numbers of emergency room admissions from prescription drug abuse in the US are a compelling argument against DTC advertising. There is the need for pharma companies to show a higher degree of restraint in such DTC advertising, keeping in mind that the messages are viewed by people with varying levels of understanding of possible side effects from improper use of prescription drugs. Key words: Prescription Drugs, DTC advertising 1. Introduction The US is the only country in the world (apart from New Zealand) that permits Television advertisements for prescription drugs. The US Federal Drugs Administration (FDA) relaxed its requirements for information content needed in such advertising in 1997. The pharma industry’s spending on DTC (direct-to-customer) advertisements has grown rapidly since the FDA rule change and reached a peak of over $ 6 billion in 2006 and 2007 before falling off due to the global economic crisis. The spending in 2012 was still a high $ 3.47 bill ion (Mack, 2013). The European Union does not permit DTC advertising by pharma companies. This was reaffirmed in December 2010 when 22 of the 27 EU countries voted against the proposal despite lobbying by the pharma industry. Instead, the new ad regulations have become even tougher with the focus â€Å"on the rights of the patient to get the information he needs and not on the rights of pharma companies to spread information† (Golby, 2010). This paper examines the arguments in favor and against DTC advertising prescription drugs. PhRMA, the pharma industry association, in its 2008 guidelines for DTC advertising lists the benefits of DTC advertising as increased patient awareness about disease and the treatment options. The ads motivate patients to contact their doctors and engage in a dialogue about health concerns and increases likelihood of receiving care for conditions that get under-diagnosed or under treated. The advertisements also help patients to continue taking the prescribed medication (PhRMA, 2008). The beneficial effects of DTC advertising based on surveys of patients and doctors are shown in the chart below (Shaw, 2008). The chart shows that 95% of the benefit is from patient awareness and better discussion the doctor can have with the patient. The question clearly is whether these benefits outweigh potential negative effects of DTC advertising. 3. Top pharma companies advertising budgets in 2012 The table below shows the 2012 advertising budgets of the top 10 global pharma companies. The tabula tion has been made from data published on 26 February 2013 in FiercePharma.com (Palmer, 2013) Pharma Ad Spend 2012 ( in $ million)                   TV Magazine Other Total   Products       Pfizer 342.7 240 39.6 622.3 Celebrex- pain drug, Viagra, Lyrica - pain drug Eli Lilly 367.3 43.4 22.7 433.4 Cymbalta for pain, Cymbalta for depression, Cialis Abbott 264 35 2.7 301.7 Humira for arthritis, AndroGel, Humira for Crohn's disease Merck 133.7 87.8 64 285.5 Shingles awareness, Nasonex, Zostavax Amgen 164 52.1 13.2 229.3 Enbrel for arthritis, Prolia, Enbrel for psoriasis Astra Zeneca 156.5 41 11.8 209.3 Nexium - stomach , Symbicort, Crestor - cholesterol Allergan 85.9 107.2 0.23 193.3 Restasis, Botox for wrinkles, Botox for migbraine Boehringer 119.6 54.7 0.36 174.7 Spiriva, Pradaxa Glaxo SmithKline 70.3 84.8 15.5 170.6 Advair Diskus - respiratory , Lovaza - cholesterol , Jalyn Otsuka 73.9 41.2 0 115.1

Analys Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Analys Paper - Essay Example The story, however, does not end here. The number of deaths has increased remarkably at around 4 times higher than the previous government reign (Bergen & Braun, 2012). There is a debate over the legality, ethicality and reality behind the policies adopted in the name of Drone warfare against terrorism. Critics believe that these attacks do not carry any moral, legal or ethical weight as the attacks do not merely harm the targeted terrorists but rather the civilians are harmed. This school of thought sheds more light on the innocent people killed in areas like Pakistan, Yemen and Somalia. They believe that drone attacks are not a mere attempt to curb terrorism anymore but it goes beyond it and has stepped towards diminishing and threatening different groups in the name of war against terrorism. The Bureau of Investigative Journalism reports that in 346 drone strikes around 2570 to 3337 deaths and around 1232-1366 injured people were reported in Pakistan alone between 2004 and 2012 (S erle & Woods, 2012). Benjamin (2012) further sheds light on the misuse of drone warfare by the US Government to brutally end the lives of incalculable blameless citizens in countries including Afghanistan, Somalia, Yemen and Pakistan (Benjamin, 2012). The opponents of drone warfare policies recommend a systematic, rational and more comprehensive view to resolve the terrorism issue. They find such brutal killings as another way to promote terrorism, i.e. a more civilized and official step towards taking part in terrorist activities. The US administration’s over reliance and misuse of the authorities and powers is not only harming the ethical values it held but is also coming into a conflict with the diplomatic and political targets it aimed to achieve (Editorial Board, 2012). TBIJ suggests that US drones are responsible for the death of 50 civilians during February 2012, who were struggling to aid and rescue victims of a previous attack. Such attacks that merely kill the innoc ent rescue workers, rescue teams, civilians and others aiming at clearing up the attacked site or helping victims after the first attack have increased the death rates of injured civilians who could be saved by the provision of timely medical assistance (Scott 2012). The double attacks have threatened people from visiting the attacked site until a considerable time has elapsed. The US, hence, needs to clarify the position and aim of such attacks which are more inclined to affect and kill innocent civilians and militants rather than the targeted terrorist groups. The supporters of drone war claim that drone attacks and terrorist activities have been reduced. They claim that the drone warfare is affecting their organizational capacity. Continuous attacks on the terrorists firstly reduce their number by diluting their power and secondly it discourages people from involving into such activities or groups regardless of any religious or monetary benefit they are assured of (Boyle, 2013). It seems quite practical; yet, the political case of innocent civilians killed is stronger and has forced US to look into the issue more closely and responsibly. The United Nations involvement in the issue is a living example of the cruelty it poses to the very basic phenomenon of humanity. In addition to the Protestants in Yemenis, and other countries affected by the US drones, exponential rise

The History And Background Of Ethical Egoism

The History And Background Of Ethical Egoism Introduction Ethics, in Greek language means morals. In fact, ethics is de ¬Ã‚ ned as the re ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ection on what is moral Ethical theories deal with the question of how human beings ought to behave in relation to one another. (Dontigney, 2012 They attempt to systemize, defend and recommend concepts of right and wrong behaviour. They can be applied both individually and on a bigger scale like in companies. Different companies make their decisions based on various sets of theories. These theories are more like viewpoints from which guides them when making a decision. Each theory influences decisions made by an individual or company like predicting an outcome or following duties to reach what is called an ethically correct decision.For a company to zero in on a single theory to follow, it is important for the company to realize that not everyone makes decisions in the same way. There are mainly two different sets of ethical theories. Teleological which are consequential theories and deontological which are non-consequential theories. These can be further broken down into ethical egoism, utilitarianism and virtue ethics for teleological theories and for deontological theories; it would consist of Kantian and justice ethics. Let us take a detailed look into all these theories before making a statement on which theory is the most useful in making company decisions. Teleological Theories The word teleology in Greek language means ends. It is more concerned about the end product of a decision made rather than the actions.The goodness or badness of the outcome makes or breaks the decision made. However, the actions undertaken have no say. An example according to this theory can be, killing a bad person is morally correct if it is for the greater good. Ethical Egoism Ethical egoism is a standardized or an accepted philosophical view. It differs from psychological egoism, which claims that people can only act in their self-interest. It does not describe how people behave but how they are supposed to behave. Ethical egoism is the normative theory whereby people ought to act exclusively in their self-interest (Jones et al., 2007). Therefore, the moral principle of ethical egoism suggests that an act is ethical when it promotes the individuals long-term interest. It is possible for people to help others, follow the rules of society, and even grant gifts if they believe that those actions are in their own best interest. Ethical egoism is different from the other ethical positions as it portrays that other peoples interests is or should never be considered in making a moral decision. An ethical egoist believes sacrificing something for others is not a moral action unless it makes them happy or if the sacrifice gives himself benefits. This could satisfy a person in the short term, but in the long run it is not advisable as if everyone is just as egoistic, nobody would want to help when in times of need. An example would be that this individual who loves to shop. She sees this dress in a shop and wants to buy. However, she only has enough money to buy food for her household. So in an act of ethical egoism, she decides to spend the food money on the dress instead of getting food for her family as it benefits her and does not care about the people at home who have not had their food. Utilitarianism A utilitarian considers doing something is right if the action proves useful in bringing about the best consequences in the end. Utilitarian decision makers are required to estimate the effect of each alternative on all parties concerned, and to select the one that optimizes the satisfaction of the greatest number (Velasquez, 1998). Utilitarianism represents the dominant and most influential consequence based or teleological theory. Utilitarianism focuses on ends and not on the means required to achieving those ends and it takes into account all present and future benefits and harms that accrues or might accrue to anyone who is affected by the action, including items that may be difficult to evaluate accurately (Schumann, 2001). So in this theory, it is clear that as long as the work is done or the outcome of an action is desirable, one can undertake any methods. The flaw of this method is that it does not assume that all individuals should be treated in the same way. An real life ex ample would be the Americans bombings in Japan during World War 2. The Americans point is that the Japanese were developing the same kind of weapon to wage war so if that happened, many other countries could be affected. So before such a disaster could happen, they acted early and dropped a bomb of their own, killing thousands rather than sacrificing millions. Virtue Ethics The general concept behind Virtue Ethics is that it focuses on what the individual should choose for his/her own personal inward behaviour or character rather than the individual relying solely on the external laws and customs of the persons culture, and if a persons character is good then so ought the persons choices and actions be good. (Gowdy, 2010) This theory as it suggests, is used to make moral decisions. This method is based on the person having moral character and intentions, and their actions being ethical on that basis. It relies on an individual and not on other factors such as religion, society or culture. It is based on the question what sort of person should I be rather than what should I do. In simple terms, it is more of ones character and integrity. Its about what you are, rather than what you do. This is more of a practice knowledge. The more you practice, the more virtuous you are. The more virtuous you are, the more you will more likely make moral decisions. Ther e are many examples to this theory like, not stealing, not taking medical leave unless you are legitimately sick, showing up to meetings or work on time and not lying unless it is for a good cause. Deontological Theories Deontological theories, or duty-based theories, hold that human beings have a moral obligation to follow certain principles. Deontology is one of those kinds of normative theories regarding which choices are morally required, forbidden, or permitted. (Alexander et, al, 2008) According to these theories, the rightness or wrongness of actions does not depend on their consequences but on whether they fulfil our duty. Justice Ethics According to Rawls (1971), under a veil of ignorance, rational, self-interested, and equal individuals will agree that each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties. Moreover, social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged, and attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity (Budd, 2004). In Rawlss opinion, the first virtue of social institutions is justice for the individual and not aggregate welfare. He is concerned more with how the pie is divided than with how large it is. Inequalities are just only if they result in benefits for everyone, with particular emphasis on the least advantaged (Jones, 2007). The theory of justice requires decision makers to be guided by equity, fairness, and impartiality (Cavanagh et al., 1981). It relies on three types of moral prescriptions: (a) that individuals who are similar i n a relevant respect should be treated similarly and individuals who are different in a relevant respect should be treated differently in proportion to the difference between them; (b) that rules should be administrated fairly and clearly; and (c) that individuals should not be held responsible for matters over which they have no control, and should be compensated for the cost of their injuries by those responsible for these injuries (Cavanaugh et al., 1981). Decision making and reasoning based on the theory of justice focus on the distributional effect of actions (Cavanagh et al., 1981). Statement and Conclusion Now since all the theories have been explained and analysed, it is time to make a statement on which ethical theory is the most useful in guiding company decisions and why so. Based on my research, I feel that utilitarianism is the most useful and quite important in guiding company decision making. One can argue that utilitarianism does not please everyone emotionally and only takes the big picture into account. An act or choice is morally right if, in carrying out the act, one exercises, exhibits or develops a morally virtuous character. It is morally wrong to the extent that by making the choice or doing the act one exercises, exhibits or develops a morally vicious character. (Garrett, 2005) Every theory has its very own pros and cons. But for a company to make the correct decision in moving forward, they have to be utilitarian. In these times, a company is judged on how much profits they make and what is the position of the company. To be the best, you cannot give in to your emoti ons and set of rules of what to do and what not to do. The main aim here is to reap the sows. Business managers have to realise that when it comes to business decisions, its always a win-lose situation. Like for example, in order for gaining market share, a company must make its competitors to lose their shares. One cannot refuse to do such an act saying that it is morally wrong and giving in to their emotions. Another example would be increasing the value of a long term shareholder may require sacrificing of short term profits such as bonuses or monetary rewards to a companys employees or even the employer himself. But in the long term, there would be much more profits and monetary rewards to share. Lastly, I feel that the utilitarian approach is the best as a utilitarian is much more flexible in responding to different situations. A utilitarian only has two mind-sets varying from short term to long term goals or financial to non-financial goals. So when faced with a problem, a uti litarian will weigh up options and consider the corporate profitability instead of other factors such as employees or the community. Virtue Ethics A Basic Introductory Essay, by Dr. Garrett Latest minor modification November 28, 2005 Garrett, 2005 http://www.ethicsmorals.com/ethicsvirtue.html http://www.ehow.com/info_8404891_pros-cons-ethical-theories.html Alexander, Larry and Moore, Michael, Deontological Ethics, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = .

Thinking and Decision Making Essay -- Critical Thinking

Thinking and Decision Making When it comes to the reasoning and problem solving of any issue there are various ways to come to a decision; thinking is the mental process that allows the people in the world to deal with it effectively, according to set goals, plans, ideas, and desires. Thinking involves the gathering of information that forms concepts and engages in problem solving, reasoning, and making precise decisions for the benefit of whom is concerned. Thinking according to Kirby and Goodpaster (2007),"is an internal mental process that uses information as input, integrates that information into previous learned material and the result may be knowledge or may be nothing". Creative thinking, logical thinking, and persuasive thinking are three types of thinking. Each of these types of thinking affects the critical thinking process in various ways. The three thinking types will be compared and contrasted, as well as applied to affects they have in the critical thinking process. Every person has a primary style of thinking that is used most to help in his or her decisions. Finally, critical thinking will be applied to the decision making process by using workplace examples. Creative Thinking This is one of the types of thinking styles. Creative thinking involves creating something new or original. It involves the skills of flexibility, originality, fluency, elaboration, brainstorming, modification, imagery, associative thinking, attribute listing, metaphorical thinking, and forced relationships. The aim of creative thinking is to stimulate curiosity and promote divergence. When an individual learns to expand their way of thinking to incorporate metaphorical ideas, they will spark the creative thinking process... ... way. The important thing is that we become more aware of which learning style and thinking style works best for us. Once we know our own style, we can then analyse the others. This will help us understand other people better. It will make us more flexible. And perhaps we can all pick up tips from each other on how to be more effective. References Kirby, G.R. & Goodpaster, J.R. (2007) Creative Thinking. Fourth Edition Thinking. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Albrecht, K. (1984) Brain Building: Easy Games to develop your problem solving skills. Prentice Hall. Audiblox. (n.d.). Logical thinking: Helping children to become smarter. Web. 23 Mar. 2015. http://www.audiblox.com/logical_thinking.htm Schafersman, S. D. (1991). Critical thinking: Introduction to Critical Thinking. Web. 23 Mar. 2015. http://www.freeinquiry.com/critical-thinking.html

Negotiation and Compliance: An Article Analysis

Dick Olver, chairman of BAE Systems, writes an empirical analysis of negotiation and ethical compliance in the article â€Å"Ethical Business Cultures†. His approach is that of an expert in both observation and experience in the analysis of negotiation and the behavioral aspects of corporate culture. Every successful enterprise requires the strong foundations of leadership and the willingness of the rest to believe in the vision of the leader and to follow him or her. Olver understands this firsthand and believes that implementing change in the form of an ethical working environment is key to a company’s success and employee happiness, overall. Though he asserts that there is a chain of command in every business, ethics is one area where all members of a working team must work at equally. Therefore, though demonstrating the effective use of ethics begins at the top of an organization, it can only be sustained by all employees’ involvement in it’s continuation. Olver readily outlines the processes of both the means by which employees eagerly accept the ethical vision of the business leader and the constant need for management to reinforce ethical behavior. There are no apparent flaws in his reasoning, as his expertise in the business world serves as a seemingly credible source of both advice and information. Olver initially lists three ways in which managers can negotiate compliance with their employees. A manager must be aware of what is important and communicate this to employees faithfully. He or she, also must take responsibility for ethics â€Å"embedment† and not depend or delegate this upon others. Finally, Olver suggests that questions must be asked in order to gauge the current level of diversity and willingness to accept diversity within an organization if that company wishes to acquire global contracts. Olver also lists eight standards for leaders in an ethically and globally motivated environment. To annotate this extensive information, the most key aspects of his experience and advice will follow. Leaders must consciously implement and improve benchmarking, reporting, and transparency features of company goal achievement, as this helps to keep all employees and global partners abreast of current procedures. Similarly, laws and contracts must be upheld and protected, but not at the level that interactions within the company and with outside agencies would be so secret as to arouse suspicion. The key here is that transparency is of the utmost importance in gaining trust in employees, but that not everything can be completely transparent in any organization. Olver concludes his writing with an encouragement to all business leaders to help implement an ethical environment using his expertise and experience. His conclusions are that all business leaders must be strong and determined in practicing their negotiation skills with their employees. The fear of change is common in all business settings, therefore negotiating change within an organization must be the priority of the business leader. He or she must confront the fears of change and convince others to follow that new direction of fearlessness. Having the ability to lead and to instill trust and ethics in employees yields much satisfaction and takes great skill. This not only benefits the manager in their self-esteem in their ability to positively negotiate, but it helps employees to remain happy and productive while yielding great results for the company and the bottom line.

The Billingual Instructors for Bilingual Educations

The amount of non-English-speaking minorities in the United States is continuously increasing. Be that as it may, there are people in today†s society that feel that English should be the only language spoken. It is for that reason bilingual education may be eliminated from many public schools. Low academic outcomes from students also contribute to possible abolition of bilingual education. If schools don†t obtain better methods to ease the transition from one language to another, bilingual education will be faulty and seen as useless. In turn, many students will be denied the chance for an equal education. American students have learned the language easily because it has been incorporated into everyday events from an extremely early age. An adolescent has had at least 5 years to learn English vocabulary, and continues learning through high school. Many bilingual programs have students on slower learning tracks where they barley learn English and from which they may never emerge. However, society wants bilingual students to learn English and learn it quickly. By eliminating bilingual education, society is telling the student to learn English, but not giving him a place to learn it. The student is not given an adequate chance, which results in bilingual persons having poor reading, writing and speaking skills. Bilingual students can keep up academically with their English-speaking peers if they are taught at least partly in their native languages while learning English. There are many ways that bilingual education can be improved. By hiring bilingual teachers that communicate clearly when giving directions and accurately describing tasks will help ease the transition from a native language to English. If new information was introduced by using strategies such as thoroughly explaining, outlining, and demonstrating, comprehension of instructional tasks may be maintained. Promoting student involvement, communicating expectations of students', and explaining success in completing instructional tasks would give students motivation so they feel at ease. A new language is difficult; approaching bilingual students with methods such as these could improve their learning. An effective way to have positive student outcome is to value and respect students' languages and cultures. This value and respect needs to go further than the food and holiday celebrations that may be the only recognition of cultures in many schools. Teachers should involve themselves by learning about students' experiences in native countries and communities in the United States, while encouraging and supporting the development of the English language. These actions and attitudes show a student she is valued and respected; this, in turn, supports a more comfortable atmosphere for her. Furthermore, it builds self-esteem and improves academic achievement by incorporating the students' cultures into classroom instruction. Building lessons from things in students' experience and backgrounds promote more active engagement and increased learning. The will always be a need for bilingual education. There are many ways in which schools, teachers, parents as well as the student herself can improve. Answers to all of the questions posed by bilingual educators may not be available, but ideas about features of effective bilingual schooling are available. People involved in schooling need to work together to set realistic goals and strategies to promote success of bilingual education.