Sediment Grain Size Chart for Rocks

Sediment Grain Size Chart for Rocks The grain sizes of sediments and sedimentary rocks are a matter of great interest to geologists. Different size sediment grains form different types of rocks and can reveal information about the landform and environment of an area from millions of years prior. Types of Sediment Grains Sediments are classified by their method of erosion as either clastic or chemical. Chemical sediment is broken down through chemical weathering  with transportation, a process known as corrosion, or without. That chemical sediment is then suspended in a solution until it precipitates. Think of what happens to a glass of saltwater that has been sitting out in the sun.   Clastic sediments are broken down through mechanical means, like abrasion from wind, water or ice. They are what most people think of when mentioning sediment; things like sand, silt, and clay. Several physical properties are used to describe sediment, like shape (sphericity), roundness and grain size. Of these properties, grain size is arguably the most important. It can help a geologist interpret the geomorphic setting (both present and historical) of a site, as well as whether the sediment was transported there from regional or local settings. Grain size determines just how far a piece of sediment can travel before coming to a halt.   Clastic sediments form a wide range of rocks, from mudstone to conglomerate, and soil depending on their grain size. Within many of these rocks, the sediments are clearly distinguishableespecially with a little help from a magnifier.   Sediment Grain Sizes The Wentworth scale was published in 1922 by Chester K. Wentworth, modifying an earlier scale by Johan A. Udden. Wentworths grades and sizes were later supplemented by William Krumbeins phi or logarithmic scale, which transforms the millimeter number by taking the negative of its logarithm in base 2 to yield simple whole numbers. The following is a simplified version of the much more detailed USGS version.   Millimeters Wentworth Grade Phi (ÃŽ ¦) Scale 256 Boulder –8 64 Cobble –6 4 Pebble –2 2 Granule –1 1 Very coarse sand 0 1/2 Coarse sand 1 1/4 Medium sand 2 1/8 Fine sand 3 1/16 Very fine sand 4 1/32 Coarse silt 5 1/64 Medium silt 6 1/128 Fine silt 7 1/256 Very fine silt 8 1/256 Clay 8 The size fraction larger than sand (granules, pebbles, cobbles. and boulders) is collectively called gravel, and the size fraction smaller than sand (silt and clay) is collectively called mud.   Clastic Sedimentary Rocks Sedimentary rocks form whenever these sediments are deposited and lithified and can be classified based on the size of their grains. Gravel forms coarse rocks with grains over 2 mm in size. If the fragments are rounded, they form conglomerate, and if they are angular, they form breccia.Sand, as you may guess, forms sandstone. Sandstone is medium-grained, meaning its fragments are between 1/16 mm and 2 mm.  Silt forms fine-grained siltstone, with fragments between 1/16 mm and 1/256 mm.  Anything less than 1/256 mm results in either claystone or mudstone. Two types of mudstone are shale and argillite, which is shale that has undergone very low-grade metamorphism.   Geologists determine grain sizes in the field using printed cards called comparators, which usually have a millimeter scale, phi scale, and angularity chart. They are especially useful for larger sediment grains.  In the laboratory, comparators are supplemented by standard sieves.

World War II Bomber Command Dambuster Raids

World War II Bomber Command Dambuster Raids During the early days of World War II, the Royal Air Forces Bomber Command sought to strike at German dams in the Ruhr. Such an attack would damage water and electrical production, as well as inundate large areas of the region. Conflict Date Operation Chastise took place on May 17, 1943, and was part of World War II. Aircraft Commanders Wing Commander Guy Gibson19 aircraft Operation Chastise Overview Assessing the feasibility of the mission, it was found that multiple strikes with a high degree of accuracy would be necessary. As these would have to take place against heavy enemy resistance, Bomber Command dismissed the raids as unpractical. Pondering the mission, Barnes Wallis, an aircraft designer at Vickers, devised a different approach to breaching the dams. While first proposing the use of a 10-ton bomb, Wallis was forced to move on as no aircraft capable carrying such a payload existed. Theorizing that a small charge could break the dams if detonated below the water, he was initially thwarted by the presence of German anti-torpedo nets in the reservoirs. Pushing on with the concept, he began developing a unique, cylindrical bomb designed to skip along the surface of the water before sinking and exploding at the dams base. To accomplish this, the bomb, designated Upkeep, was spun backwards at 500 rpm before being dropped from low altitude. Striking the dam, the bombs spin would let it roll down the face before exploding underwater. Wallis idea was put forward to Bomber Command and after several conferences was accepted on February 26, 1943. While Wallis team worked to perfect the Upkeep bomb design, Bomber Command assigned the mission to 5 Group. For the mission, a new unit, 617 Squadron, was formed with Wing Commander Guy Gibson in command. Based at RAF Scampton, just northwest of Lincoln, Gibsons men were given uniquely modified Avro Lancaster Mk.III bombers. Dubbed the B Mark III Special (Type 464 Provisioning), 617s Lancasters had much of the armor and defensive armament removed to reduce weight. In addition, the bomb bay doors were taken off to allow the fitting of special crutches to hold and spin the Upkeep bomb. As the mission planning progressed, it was decided to strike the MÃ ¶hne, Eder, and Sorpe Dams. While Gibson relentlessly trained his crews in low-altitude, night flying, efforts were made to find solutions to two key technical problems. These were ensuring that the Upkeep bomb was released at a precise altitude and distance from the dam. For the first issue, two lights were mounted under each aircraft such that their beams would converge on the surface of the water then the bomber was at the correct altitude. To judge range, special aiming devices which utilized towers on each dam were built for 617s aircraft. With these problems solved, Gibsons men began test runs over reservoirs around England. Following their final testing, the Upkeep bombs were delivered on May 13, with the goal of Gibsons men conducting the mission four days later. Flying the Dambuster Mission Taking off in three groups after dark on May 17, Gibsons crews flew at around 100 feet to evade German radar. On the outbound flight, Gibsons Formation 1, consisting of nine Lancasters, lost an aircraft en route to the MÃ ¶hne when it was downed by high tension wires. Formation 2 lost all but one of its bombers as it flew towards Sorpe. The last group, Formation 3, served as a reserve force and diverted three aircraft to Sorpe to make up for losses. Arriving at MÃ ¶hne, Gibson led the attack in and successfully released his bomb. He was followed by Flight Lieutenant John Hopgood whose bomber was caught in the blast from its bomb and crashed. To support his pilots, Gibson circled back to draw German flak while the others attacked. Following a successful run by Flight Lieutenant Harold Martin, Squadron Leader Henry Young was able to breach the dam. With the MÃ ¶hne Dam broken, Gibson led the flight to Eder where his three remaining aircraft negotiated tricky terrain to score hits on the dam. The dam was finally opened by Pilot Officer Leslie Knight. While Formation 1 was achieving success, Formation 2 and its reinforcements continued to struggle. Unlike MÃ ¶hne and Eder, the Sorpe Dam was earthen rather than masonry. Due to increasing fog and as the dam was undefended, Flight Lieutenant Joseph McCarthy from Formation 2 was able to make ten runs before releasing his bomb. Scoring a hit, the bomb only damaged the crest of the dam. Two aircraft from Formation 3 attacked as well, but were unable to inflict substancial damage. The remaining two reserve aircraft were directed to secondary targets at Ennepe and Lister. While Ennepe was unsuccessfully attacked (this aircraft may have struck Bever Dam by mistake), Lister escaped unharmed as Pilot Officer Warner Ottley was downed en route. Two additional aircraft were lost during the return flight. Aftermath Operation Chastise cost 617 Squadron eight aircraft as well as 53 killed and 3 captured. The successful attacks on the MÃ ¶hne and Eder dams released 330 million tons of water into the western Ruhr, reducing water production by 75% and flooding large amounts of farmland. In addition, over 1,600 were killed though many of these were forced laborers from occupied countries and Soviet prisoners of war. While British planners were pleased with the results, they were not long lasting. By late June, German engineers had fully restored water production and hydroelectric power. Though the military benefit was fleeting, the success of the raids provided a boost to British morale and aided Prime Minister Winston Churchill in negotiations with the United States and Soviet Union. For his role in the mission, Gibson was awarded the Victoria Cross while the men of 617 Squadron received a combined five Distinguished Service Orders, ten Distinguished Flying Crosses and four bars, twelve Distinguished Flying Medals, and two Conspicuous Gallantry Medals. Selected Sources Dambusters.orgThe DambustersBBC: Barnes Wallis

Commercialization plan for Medical devices Essay

Commercialization plan for Medical devices - Essay Example The study will highlight the entire commercialization plan developed for the Health Kart Diabetic Monitoring device which includes the patenting, drafting and the quality control process. Table of Contents Technology 6 Product Description: HealthKart Diabetz 6 Key Success Factors 6 Patents 7 Process of Acquiring Patents for Diabetic Monitoring Device 9 The Firm: Health Kart Diabetes 10 The Business Opportunity 11 Value Proposition 11 External Players 12 Market 13 Market Dynamics 13 External Forces 13 Environmental Impact 13 Marketing Strategies 14 Strategic Positioning of HealthKare Diabetes 17 Quality Control Monitoring Process 21 Action Plan 23 Implementation of Milestones 24 Marketing Tasks 24 Timings 24 Mass Targeting Strategy for HealthKare Diabetes 24 Commercial Risk Assessment 25 Financials 26 Conclusion 27 References 28 Background: Commercialization of Diabetic Monitoring Devices The commercialization activity is regarded as an important business activity, which leads to the development of a new market plan for the introduction of a new product into the market (Ahmed & Rafiq, 2002). This activity involves the formulation of new marketing strategies and also the development of effective marketing devices, which would help in checking the feasibility of the marketing plan. Commercialization would also help in monitoring whether the marketing activities adhere with the executed plan (CIM, n.d.). However, commercialization would also include various marketing strategies required for the launch of new product and production process, which would also require financial and non-financial assistance from the management perspective. The study will deal with commercialization of diabetic monitoring devices, which forms an integral part among the medical equipment. Diabetic monitoring devices not only help in checking the glucose levels of an individual, but also prevent from increasing the glucose levels in medical patients. The main objective of the monitoring de vices would be to check the glucose content and the concentration of glucose levels in an individual. The study will deal with the commercialization plan of diabetic monitoring device, which has been the aid for several medial patients. The author of the study has formulated a marketing plan, which consists of varied marketing strategies for introducing new product into the market and also for the development of a commercialization process for this particular product. Technology Product Description: HealthKart Diabetz The product would be named HealthKart Diabetz and will be initially marketed in the US and UK to cater to the needs of the mass population suffering from diabetes and other glucose content related diseases. The main objective of the marketer would be to develop a product whose functionality would be simple and would produce accurate results. The medical device would help in providing quantitative test and would reflect the glucose content in the blood levels of the ind ividual. The product will help in monitoring the glucose level of an individual and the results can be shown to the doctor for daily adjustment in the treatment, checking high and low level sugar content, understand whether the patient requires change in the existing diet and exercise plan. The product will be environment

British History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

British History - Essay Example If we are questioning identity, then perhaps it is not proper to talk about how the empire talks of the great European question rather the commonwealth of these three so called nations if that will be correct. How can such an empire stand if until now, it has still no clear view of what an Empire should be and or how it should be perceived by the surrounding nations. As of now, Canada, Australia and some parts of Africa are seen to be an extension of the empire's blood. In on way or so, it is also proper to say that somehow, empire has an impact in the Britishness of the people. People will ask how exactly did it form an imperial and national ethic and is the wrapping of flag to these three nations even worth it Others say it is just a propaganda, others say the empire is trying and haggling over this goal to reach unity for identity. Dennis Judd from the University of London in his article entitled Britain: The Land Before Hope and Glory stated a very significant message as he tried to describe this longing for identity and the search for unity. To be clear, he said: The Celtic involvement in the British imperial mission was, however, often ambivalent, and sometimes downright obstructive. After all, it was the English who had claimed the hegemony of the British Isles, and who had in one way or another subdued, conquered or incorporated the three Celtic nations. Although Scotland was arguably the most independent and self-sufficient of these, the role was more that of junior partner than equal, despite the apparent willingness with which the Scottish people entered the Union by negotiation in 1707. The Welsh, however, were far more clearly a dispossessed nation, driven from the prosperous lowlands of England by the Anglo-Saxon invaders in the wake of the Roman retreat, and the Irish were even more palpably a conquered people, although here the equation was complicated by the passionate pro-Unionism of the Protestant minority in the northern counties. (Judd, page 1) It is then easier to understand and easier to say that the idea and or ideology of empire is the one that keeps these three united nations kicking and striving for commonwealth. It is also the same ideology that boosts power to gain more in the globalized world. This is the thing they also call as commercial empire, something that the people would understand and know as an advantage and a merit for embracing this ideology. And if in the old years of existence, India was the main source of employment, during the beginning of this imperialization of Britain, there came new chance for people in the area. New jobs and better lives were facing people from their front doors. The Empire has also made known its strong military force that is equivalent to Russia or Germany. Despite all these forms of development which came around the empire, still there are also ideas that came about promoting an opposite term of effect to the imperialism. In one way or at some point, the empire was seen to be spreading its power by first having faithful nationalism and one soul within them. This is not solely for the purpose of attaining peace and unity within a country like the typical saying goes, instead this is to brag around the world that

The Security Council Essay Example for Free

The Security Council Essay The Security Council of the United Nations was one of the original bodies of the UN formed with the United Nations charter in 1945. The Security Council was created to put all the superpowers of the world on equal footing, giving each one vote in binding resolutions for the member nations of the UN. The charter members with permanent seats on the council are the United States, France, Great Britain (the United Kingdom), Russia and China. In 1945, these nations were considered the most powerful on Earth and were charged with keeping the peace of the world. In addition to the five permanent seats, the Security Council is comprised of 10 other member nations elected by popular vote of the entire UN and serving two-year terms. Each member nation of the Security Council has equal power in theory, though in practice some deference is given to the permanent members. The Security Council can pass binding resolutions on the other member nations, but each council member can veto any resolution. As such, the Security Council rarely can form a consensus, though it often discusses major issues around the world. Often, the only time a consensus is reached is when the matter is so trivial or involves such a small country that it has no friends on the council. Though the council was set up to have inherent checks and balances, it has often become a staging ground for popularity contests and member nations have neglected the world’s best interests in favor of the more proprietary interests of their nation. This is how programs like the United Nations’ Oil for Food program have become corrupted by individual nationalism and greed. Furthermore, on the rare occasions when the Security Council can agree and pass a binding resolution, it has limited enforcement powers and often the only punishment for breaking a resolution is a verbal slap from the council. Some member nations, particularly the United States, have lead coalition forces on occasion to enforce UN resolutions, but these military actions often are disapproved by many member nations and the Security Council itself rarely votes in favor of military action. The end result is that the United Nations provides an interesting forum for smaller countries to air grievances and for all countries to point out flaws in their neighbors, but as a governing body, the United Nations and the Security Council has no teeth. It becomes like a restrictive parent who tries to tell a child what to do, but fails to enforce its own rules. In the end, no one respects the rule of the United Nations and might still makes right. Smaller countries object to the permanent members of the council and their might, both military and economic, but they also turn to those countries when they are the ones being oppressed. In short, the United Nations and the Security Council format need to be revisited and the UN must be given some enforcement power to assure that its resolutions are kept. Otherwise, it is a useless home of debate that is ignored and laughed at.

Abortion :: essays research papers

Abortions Pro Choice supporters who claim it isn't do themselves and their cause a disservice. Of course it's alive. It's a biological mechanism that converts nutrients and oxygen into energy that causes its cells to divide, multiply, and grow. It's alive. Anti-abortion activists often mistakenly use this fact to support their cause. "Life begins at conception" they claim. And they would be right. The genesis of a new human life begins when the egg with 23 chromosomes joins with a sperm with 23 chromosomes and creates a fertilized cell, called a zygote, with 46 chromosomes. The single-cell zygote contains all the DNA necessary to grow into an independent, conscious human being. It is a potential person. But being alive does not give the zygote full human rights - including the right not to be aborted during its gestation. A single-cell ameba also coverts nutrients and oxygen into biological energy that causes its cells to divide, multiply and grow. It also contains a full set of its own DNA. It shares everything in common with a human zygote except that it is not a potential person. Left to grow, it will always be an ameba - never a human person. It is just as alive as the zygote, but we would never defend its human rights based solely on that fact. And neither can the anti-abortionist, which is why we must answer the following questions as well. 2. Is it human? Yes. Again, Pro Choice defenders stick their feet in their mouths when they defend abortion by claiming the zygote-embryo-fetus isn't human. It is human. Its DNA is that of a human. Left to grow, it will become a full human person. And again, anti-abortion activists often mistakenly use this fact to support their cause. They are fond of saying, "an acorn is an oak tree in an early stage of development; likewise, the zygote is a human being in an early stage of development." And they would be right. But having a full set of human DNA does not give the zygote full human rights - including the right not to be aborted during its gestation. Don't believe me? Here, try this: reach up to your head, grab one strand of hair, and yank it out. Look at the base of the hair. That little blob of tissue at the end is a hair follicle. It also contains a full set of human DNA.

Developing nursing standards of practice Essay

The standards of practice for the RN are made up by the state board of nursing that the nurse lives in. It is each nurse’s responsibility to know and abide by their standards of practice for their state. Each state develops their standards of practice by following guidelines that the American Nurses Association (ANA) provides. The ANA has a committee on Nursing Practice Standards and Guidelines that has a duty to clarify the role and relationships that are associated with regulation of all nursing practice (ANA, n.d.). â€Å"The model recognizes the contributions of professional and specialty nursing organizations, educational institutions, credentialing and accrediting organizations, and regulatory agencies; clarifies the role of workplace policies and procedures; and confirms the individual nurse’s ultimate responsibility and accountability for defining nursing practice† (ANA, n.d.). There are 5 essential entities that are involved with developing a standard of practice. They are knowledge, role validation, competence and skill, environment, and ethics (Klein, 2005). As a standard of practice is being developed, there are questions for each entity that can be asked. For example: Knowledge—â€Å"Did I complete a program that prepared me to see this population (family, adult, pediatric) of patients?† (Klein, 2005) Role Validation—â€Å"Is additional licensure or certification required to do this skill on an ongoing or specialized basis?† (Klein, 2005) Competence and Skill—â€Å"How have I maintained competence?† (Klein, 2005) Enviroment—â€Å"Does the environment that I work in support this scope or practice through structures such as staffing, consultation, policies and procedures, protocols, and community standards?† (Klein, 2005) Ethics—â€Å"What are the potential consequences of accepting treatment responsibility for this patient?† (Klein, 2005) In conclusion, the board of nursing wants the practicing nurse to be fully competent in their work. This is a direction of how they determine the standards of practice that we follow. American Nurses Association. Determining Scope of Practice for Advanced Practice Registered Nurses.Retrieved August 6, 2014, from http://www.nursingworld.org/ScopeofPractice Klein, T. A. (2005). Scope of Practice and the Nurse Practitioner: Regulation, Competency, Expansion and Evolution. 1-2.

Wood is an important worldwide renewable natural resource.

Chapter 1: Introduction1.0 IntroductionWood is an of import worldwide renewable natural resource. Forests comprise about one-third of the Earth ‘s entire land mass ( 3.4 million km? ) . There are an estimated 12,000 species of trees, each bring forthing a characteristic type of wood. ( International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1995 ) Wood based industry in Malaysia comprises four major bomber sectors. There are sawn timber veneer and panel merchandises, which include plyboard, and other reconstituted panel merchandises such as particleboard, hardboard, or fibreboards, moldings, builders joinery and woodworking, furniture and furniture constituents. The industry is preponderantly owned by Malayan and it is estimated that 80 per cent to 90 per cent of the companies comprise little and average sized constitutions. In Malaysia, furniture makers produce a broad scope of furniture from dining room, sleeping room, kitchen, office, occasional, living room, upholstered furniture or couch, outdoor and garden furniture. In Malaysia wood based industry for furniture and fixtures public presentation, furniture industry is extremely export-oriented with over 90 per cent of its production exported. Malaysia presently ranked as the ten percent largest exporter of furniture in the universe and 2nd in Asia after the People ‘s Republic of China, with exports to more than 160 states. In 2008, exports of wooden furniture amounted to RM 6.8 billion. The chief export finishs were the United States of America, Japan and Australia. The export value is expected to make RM 10 billion by 2010.More than 80 per cent of the furniture exported from kitchen furniture, sleeping room furniture, upholstered with wooden frame, and office furniture are made from gum elastic wood, or Hevea Brasiliensis which is a light colored, medium hardwood popularly called â€Å"Malaysian Oak.† As the demand for exports of furniture additions, so does the production rate additions, and in Malaysia furniture industry, the wellness jeopardy associated with wood dust have yet receive coverage particularly with concern to the wellness of its workers and to the environmental air quality environing it. Wood dust is defined as any wood atoms originating from the processing or handling of forests. Wood dust is generated when lumber is processed, such as when it is chipped, sawed, turned, drilled, or sanded. ( Occupational Safety Health Administration, 1989 ) . Wood dust is normally measured as air-borne atom dust concentration, by atom size distribution, by type of wood, and by other features of wood ( International Agency Research Cancer 1995 ) . Wood dust is used to fix wood coal, as an absorbent for glyceryl trinitrate, as a filler in plastics, and in linoleum and poster board ( Radian. , 1991 ) . Another commercial usage for wood dust is in wood composts ( Weber et al. , 1993 ) .Wood dust occurs in the environment in countries where machinery or tools are used to cut or determine wood. No flash-point informations are available for wood dust. However, wood dust is flammable and will light in the environment. It may show a strong to severe detonation jeopardy if a dust cloud contacts an ignition beginning. Wood dust is stable under normal laboratory conditions. Exposure to wood dust occurs to persons utilize machineries to cut or determine wood. Deposition within the air passages depend on the size, form, and the denseness of the dust atoms and the turbulency and speed of the air flow. ( International Agency Research Cancer 1981 ) . Use of manus held electric smoothers are identified as a peculiarly dusty, which would take to exposure to wood dust. Wood dust concentrations vary with type of dust extraction, sum of wood removed and type of smoother. ( Thorpe and Brown, 1994 ) . Different type of wood will besides bring forth different sum of dust. Hardwood and deal are different in the physical chemical belongingss that leads to the different in the sum of wood produced.1.1 Significance of surveyThe significances of this survey are:To detect the degree of safety and wellness consciousness among the workers of wood working to wood dust.To propose a extenuation attack to minimise the exposure to wood dust through technology control and good ho use maintaining.1.2 Aims of the surveyTo measure the exposure of wood dust concentrations on sanding and routing wood procedures in a Rubber wood furniture mill.To suggest appropriate steps to cut down wood dust emanation in the furniture mill.1.3 Problem statementWood dust is known to be a human carcinogens based on surveies done by Research workers from the Department of Health and Human Services in United States and American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists ( ACGIH ) proposed 1 mg/m? of eight hr Time Weighted Average value for all wood dust species. In general, exposure to inordinate sum of wood dust is considered to hold an irritant consequence on eyes, nose, and pharynx in add-on to pneumonic map damage. Therefore, the intent of holding a monitoring plan is to measure and supervise the degree of exposure of wood dust to the environing environment and particularly on workers that have historical background or old record of holding any related wellness jeopardies to wood dust.1.4 HypothesissThe hypotheses in this survey are:Entire wood dust concentration and Respirable dust concentration on sanding and routing procedures in furniture industry falls into the standard bound as proposed in Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 by Department of Occupational Safety and Health Malaysia ( DOSH Malaysia ) which is 1 mg/m3.Furniture mill have their ain safety steps taken to cut down the sum of dust emitted by the usage of cyclones and Personal Protective Equipment wore on workers.1.5 Case survey backgroundThe location for this survey is in Muar, Malaysia one of the most concentrated part for furniture fabrication industry and production of Rubberwood furniture ‘s. The mill is situated a t the 4th Lot in Industrial Zone Parit Jamil, where Rubber wood furniture merchandises such as table leg, bed stations, light base are made. The mill itself has 100 workers, chiefly are from Nepal, Bangladesh and Myanmar.1.6 Limitation of surveyQuestionnaire signifiers that have been distributed are chiefly done in Bahasa Malaysia due to linguistic communication restraint among workers from foreign states such as Bangladesh, Myanmar, Vietnam and Nepal workers in the mill.Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW2.0 IntroductionForests cover about tierce of the universe the Earth ‘s entire land country, about 3.4 million km2.There are 3.5 thousand million M3 of the tree biomass is harvested, about half which is used as fuel, the remainder as sawn wood, pulpwood, and more. ( Gichner. , 1995 ) . There are an estimated 12, 000 species of trees, each bring forthing a characteristic types of wood.2.1 Definition of wood dustOccupational Safety and Health 1989 stated that wood dust is defined as a ny wood atoms originating from the processing or handling of forests. Wood dust is generated when lumber is processed such as when it is chipped, sawed, turned, drilled or sanded. Harmonizing to IARC 1995, Wood dust is known as a light brown or tan hempen pulverization. It has a specific gravitation of 0.56. Most tree species are deciduous tree, hardwood chiefly angiosperms. Merely about 800 species known as deal are Gymnosperms, or cone-bearing species, . ( Bauch. , 1975 )Type of woodThe footings â€Å"hardwood† and â€Å"softwood† does non needfully mention to the hardness of the wood, but to the species. Hardwood is by and large denser compared to softwood, where the denseness varies well within each group. The scientific and common names of some deal and hardwood are compiled in table 1 ( Vaucher. , 1986 ) . Wood dust is besides characterized by its wet content: Dry wood ( moisture content less than approximately 15-20 % ) is less elastic than moist ( green ) wood, and woodworking operations with dry wood consequence in a larger volume of entire dust and a higher per centum of inhalable dust atoms ( Hinds. , 1988 ) .2.2 Occupational exposure to wood dust.Dust exposure occurs in a big figure of woodworking industries, where dust arises from scratch, grinding, screening or blending. Traditionally, wood dust is considered as a nuisance dust, and its inauspicious effects on open workers have merely received attending. ( W.K.Liu et al. , 1985 ) . Harmonizing to Jones and Smith 1986, in this century, veneer- and plastic covered hardboard and fiber-board panels have been used intensively for the industry of cabinets, table tops and similar and hardwood merchandises. Solid hardwoods and hardwood-veneered panels are used for high-quality furniture because of the attractive form formed by their grains. Wood dust exposure occurs in chiefly as an occupational exposure in some industries and businesss. The partial list of open workers includes lumbermans ; sawmill workers, workers involved in the industry of plyboard and other boards, wooden furniture workers and cabinet shapers, workers in the industry of other wood merchandises, and carpenters and joiners in the building industry. Exposure to wood dust has long been associated with a assortment of inauspicious wellness effects, including dermatitis, allergic respiratory effects, mucosal and non allergic respiratory effects, and malignant neoplastic disease. Other symptoms associated with wood dust exposure include oculus annoyance, rhinal waterlessness and obstructor, prolonged colds, and frequent concerns. The type and degree of exposure to wood dust can be described in several ways. A first of import feature is the type of wood ( hardwood, deal ) and tropical wood, or other wood species. Hardwoods are deciduous trees such as oak, beech, calcium hydroxide, ash, birch, poplar, elm, or cherry trees. Softwood is cone-bearing trees, such as fir, spruce or pine. Wood is besides characterized by its wet content, which depends both on the species and on the freshness of the wood. The concentration of airborne dust is by and large measured in mg/m? with standard methods. ( IARC, 1995 ) The atom size is besides an of import parametric quantity, because the deposition form in human upper and lower air-ways partially depends on the atom size. Large atoms ( & gt ; 10 µm ) are about wholly deposited in the olfactory organ. Researchs on wood dust believe that comparatively that few atoms larger than 5 µm, which form most of the wood dust, yesteryear into the lungs every bit far as the clearance mechanism of the olfactory organ is non impaired. The inquiries on whether wood dust or dust from one or several forests contains carcinogens have been raised. There is no clear reply to this inquiry. A really big figure of chemical constituent are present in wood. Cellulose, polyoses, lignin, terpene, terpenoids, fats, waxes and phenolic compounds such as tannic acids, but none is a known carcinogen. ( Leclerc and Luce. , 1998 ) Types of business are straight related to the sum of exposure to wood dust. Lumbermans and sawmill workers are exposed to comparatively big atoms of fresh wood. The average degree of wood dust is by and large lower than 1mg/m3. Wooden furniture industry and cabinet devising involves a big figure of woodworking procedures, such as sawing, planning, come offing, sanding and usage of milling machines that produce wood dust ( Nylander et al. , 1993 ) A assortment of species are used, with predomination of hardwood for high quality furniture manufactured by cabinet shapers, for illustration in Asiatic states. The average size of the atoms may be particularly little, because the forests need to be really dry, which produces really finer atoms and the sanding, is much finer for furniture industries, for aesthetic grounds. There is some grounds that sanding of hardwood can bring forth finer smaller atoms. ( Acheson. , 1976 )2.3 Sanding of wood.Sandpapering is smoothing the surface of wood â €Å"an scratchy procedure in which borders of little, difficult, crystalline atoms are quickly drawn across the surface of the wood, with force per unit area being applied perpendicular to the surface† ( Holliday et al. , 1986 ) . The smaller the scratchy atoms, the finer the dust produced, and the faster the smoother, the greater the sum of dust produced. Sandpapering is the normally used come uping method continuing wood coating ( Williams and Morris. , 1998 ) . The chief aim of sanding is to do surfaces free of seeable defects every bit good as to makes surfaces uniformly absorbent for coatings ( Richter et al. , 1995 ) Sandpapering is done in many wood industries, with little, handheld smoothers to big membranophones or belts for smoothing a full panel. There are few different ways in sanding of wood. The most common are the belt smoother, where a uninterrupted strip of emery paper rotated between two rollers, the disc smoother, where a round piece of emery paper fastened to a revolving disc, the membranophone smoother, where a uninterrupted strap of emery paper rotated on a membranophone, and the orbital smoother, which operates with an egg-shaped, vibrating gesture. Use of manus held electric smoothers has been identified as a peculiarly dust-covered procedure, which would take to exposure to dust. Wood dust concentrations vary with type of dust extraction, sum of wood removed, and type of smoother ( Thorpe and Brown et al. , 1995 ) . For electrical orbital smoothers without built-in dust extraction, entire inhalable or inspirable dust concentrations ranged from 0.42 to 8.01 mg/m3, dust concentrations were reduced 84.3 % to 97.97 % when the smoothers were used with fitted bags. For electric belt smoothers, entire inhalable dust concentrations ranged from 10.2 to 19.8 mg/m3 without built-in dust extraction and were reduced 66.1 % to 93.5 % with bags. For electric orbital smoothers with external dust extraction, entire dust concentrations ranged from 0.022 to 0.739 mg/m3, and respirable dust concentrations ranged from 0.003 to 0.936 mg/m3. Rotary smoothers with external dust extraction produced entire dust concentrations ranged from 0.002 to 0.699 mg/m3, and respirable dust ranged from 0.001 to 0.088 mg/m3. A survey carried out on the dust coevals features of hardwoods during sanding procedure reveals that sum of wood removed during the sanding procedure predetermined dust-generation, although the wood denseness and scratchy grit used played a function. Consequently, low denseness wood species produced higher dust-concentration due o its comparative easiness of sanding, and vice-versa. Different sanding operations will bring forth different sum of dust concentration ( Graham and Ratnasingam.,2007 ) . This is proven by a survey carried on six hardwood species stand foring commercially of import hardwoods use in Malayan wood merchandises fabricating industry selected based on hardness and denseness as in Table 2.1.Hardwood speciesAverage denseness ( kg/m3 )Average hardness ( N )Resak ( Vatica sp. )8707040Balau ( Shorea sp. )8206980Kelat ( Syzygium sp. )6705140Merawan ( Hopea sp. )6405080Rubberwood ( Hevea sp. )5403440Meranti ( Shorea sp. )5303610Table 2.1: Malayan Hardwood species used in wood merchandises fabricating industry. ( Taken from Dust-generation features of hardwoods during sanding procedures ) Ratnasingam et al. , 2009. From the survey conducted, it is shown that the sum of wood removed is the most of import factor finding dust-generation during wood sanding processes. Machine sanding utilizing belt-sanding procedure yielded the highest dust concentrations compared to manus sanding. This is shown by the important alteration in dust concentration shown in Table 2.2 below. .ProcedureDust concentrations ( mg/m3 )Average wood remotion ( gms )Hand sanding197Orbital sanding269Wide belt-sanding4318Edge sanding166.5Stroke sanding3111Brush sanding115.5Table 2.2: Dust concentration at different sanding procedures: Taken from dust-generation features of hardwoods during sanding procedures. by Ratnasingam et al. , 2009. Based on the consequences, about all sanding operations produced dust concentration higher than the standard allowable dust exposure degree of 5mg/m3, proposing that sanding dust control is of import in the furniture fabrication industry, if wellness and safety criterions are traveling to be met ( Graham and Ratnasingam et al. , 2007 ) .2.4 Properties and Toxicity of wood dustWood dust is one of the most common organic dusts workers are exposed to in the furniture fabrication industry. ( Ratnasingam et al. , 2009 ) . Surveies have found that exposure to wood dust can do wellness effects like rhinal mucosa harm, annoyance and Sino-nasal malignant neoplastic disease, while deep lung deposition can take to lung malignant neoplastic disease and impaired respiratory map ( Shamssain. , 1992 ) and ( Mikkelsen. , 2002 ) . Therefore a survey was undertaken to measure air-borne wood dust concentration and its atom size distribution in the Malayan Rubberwood furniture industry, one of the large st wood industry in South East Asia. Sampling periods of 8 hours were undertaken at the routing and hand-sanding work Stationss to find the Time-weighted mean value of wood dust concentration. The mean air-borne dust concentration recorded for routing work station ( 63mg/m3 ) was lower than the sanding work station ( 89 mg/m3 ) . This value was higher than the standard eight hr Time Weighted Average Maximum Exposure Limit for wood dust of 5mg/m3 ( FMR1989, HSE1999 ) , and hence the high air-borne wood dust concentration in the mills poses respiratory-related wellness hazards.In footings of atom size distribution, this survey revealed that less than 25 % of the air-borne dust by weight at the two work Stationss were less than 10 µm. Hence, the emanation during consequences indicate that merely a little part of the air-borne wood dust atom is capable of perforating into the lower parts of respiratory system to do serious wellness jobs. However, this survey besides show that it is due to air-borne wood dust concentration, and non the wood dust atom size distribution that posses serious menaces to the respiratory system of workers in the Rubberwood furniture fabricating mill s. Another survey did carried out was to measure air borne dust emanation ( 0.1-10 µm ) during the routing operation of Rubberwood ( Hevea Brasiliensis ) in the furniture industry in South East Asia. ( Ratnasingam et al. , 2009 ) . The emanation of airborne wood dust during the machining of Rubberwood ( Hevea Brasiliensis ) consequences in increased incidence of respiratory jobs and rhinal malignant neoplastic disease among workers in the South East Asiatic furniture industry ( Anon. , 2008 ) .Rubberwood ( Hevea Brasiliensis ) being the most of import natural stuff for the wooden furniture industry in the South East Asia part, therefore the survey on the consequence of dust emanation during its machining are of import as to set up a benchmark for industrial wellness guideline for the Rubberwood processing industry in this part. The consequences showed airborne dust in the scope of 0.1-10 µm had the most terrible consequence on the wellness of workers. 68 % of the workers confirmed as agony from some respiratory-related jobs after five old ages of drawn-out exposure. The experiments showed that the mean bit thickness has the greatest influence on dust coevals during the routing operation followed by wood wet content and rake angle. It is shown that airborne dust emanation during the routing procedure of Rubberwood could be minimized by aiming an mean bit thickness of 0.1mm, while maintaining the wet content in 12-14 % scope. These should remain as guidelines to minimise the airborne dust emanation, which in bend will cut down the wellness jeopardy posed by airborne dust to workers in Rubberwood furniture mills in South East Asia ( Ratnasingam et al. , 2009 ) .2.5 Human malignant neoplastic disease surveies of wood dustRecent surveies of wood dustIn December 2000, a study by U.S Department of Health and Hum an Services National Toxicity Program entitled â€Å"Report on Carcinogen for Wood Dust† stated in its drumhead statement that Wood dust is known to be a human carcinogen, based on sufficient grounds of carcinogenicity from surveies in worlds. It has been demonstrated through human epidemiologic surveies that exposure to wood dust increases the happening of malignant neoplastic disease of the olfactory organ ( rhinal pits and paranasal fistulas ) . Strong and consistent associations with malignant neoplastic disease of the rhinal pits and paranasal pits were observed both for businesss associated with wood dust exposure and for straight estimated wood dust exposure. Hazards were highest for glandular cancer, and other types of nasal malignant neoplastic diseases ( squamous cell carcinoma of the rhinal pit ) and malignant neoplastic diseases at other sites, including the nasopharynx, the voice box, and Hodgin ‘s disease have been associated with wood dust exposure in several epidemiologic surveies. The function of specific chemical constituents of the wood ( of course happening or exogenously added compounds ) in wood dust-induced carcinogenesis is ill-defined. The particulate nature of wood dust may besides lend to wood dust-associated carcinogenesis since dust generated by wood working typically consists of a high proportion of atoms that are deposited in the nasal cavity.Chronic exposure to wood dust particulates is associated with reduced mucociliary clearance and enhanced inflammatory reactions in the rhinal pit in some surveies in worlds. Additionally, cellular alterations ( metaplasia and dysplasia ) observed in the rhinal mucous membrane of wood workers and laboratory animate beings may stand for preneoplastic provinces. A survey on 4247 adult females employed in a Norse mush and paper factory for at least one twelvemonth between 1920 and 1993, supervising their malignant neoplastic disease incidence from 1953 to 1993, supervising their malignant neoplastic disease incidence from 1952 to 1993. Compared with the national female population, adult females employed for at least three old ages in mush and paper work showed an ovarian malignant neoplastic disease standardized incidence ratio ( SIR ) of 1.6 ( 95 % CI = 1.1 to 2.3, 3.1 instances ) . Elevated SIRs were seen for lung malignant neoplastic disease and multiple myeloma in adult females with less than three old ages exposure, but non for longer exposures. No rhinal malignant neoplastic disease instances occured in the population. Wood dust exposure was non estimated straight, doing dose response hard to measure, and the survey ‘s size limited its power for most results ( Langseth and Anderson et al. , 1999 ) ( Imos et al. , 2000 ) studied 3723 male and 3063 female workers employed at two furniture mills in Estonia from 1946 onward, followed through 1995 for incidence of malignant neoplastic disease. Workers were classified as holding low, medium, , or high strength of exposure based on employment records. Nasal consonant malignant neoplastic diseases were twice every bit common as expected, compared with the national population, but this was based on merely three instances ( all of which occured among extremely open workers. ) The lone significantly elevated hazard rose with strength of exposure among adult females, but non among work forces ; incorporation of a 20-year latency premise stengthened the association. The usage of totl incidence alternatively of mortality, every bit good as consideration of strength of exposure and slowdown effects, were strenghts of this survey. However, the sample size limited the ability to observe elevated hazards of rarer malignant neoplastic diseases. In a survey conducted on genotoxicity of wood dust in a human embryologic lung cell line, utilizing cell civilization technique, a survey on comparative genotoxic activities of two difficult forests ( beech and oak ) and a soft wood ( pine ) a cell civilization with human lung cells. It is learn that among the untreated forests processed in furniture industries, difficult forests, peculiarly beech and oak have been often suspected to incorporate carcinogenic belongingss in their natural components. It has been shown that beech wood infusions induce weak mutants in bacteriums ( McGregor 1982 ; Mothashamipur et al. , 1986 ) , an enhanced figure of atomic abbreations in duodenal crypts of mice ( Mothashamipur and Norpoth. , 1989 ) , micronuclei in rhinal epithelial tissue of rats ( Nelson et al. , 1993 ) , and malignant tumours on mouse tegument ( Mothashamipur et al. , 1989 ) . Although occupational exposure to wood dust is encountered during all phases of wood processing, the comparatively higher hazard of developing malignant neoplastic disease is associated with the increased degree of wood dust in the ambiance ( Mothashamipur et al. , 1989b ) . However, the strongest associations of exposure to wood dust and malignant neoplastic disease development is observed in businesss where merely difficult forests but no additives are used ( Nylander and Dement. , 1993 ) . The consequences of the survey show that extracts of untreated difficult forests cost important chromosomal and chromatid interruptions in embryologic lung cells, but such a phenomenon was non observed with the deal. A farther comparative survey on DNA-strand interrupting effects of hardwoods ( beech, oak ) and a deal ( spruce ) has been done in vitro utilizing rat hepatocytes ( Schmezer et al. , 1994 ) .2.6 Surveies of malignant neoplastic disease in Experimental animate beingsCarcinogenicity o f wood dust and wood additives in rates exposed by long term inspiration.In 1965, Macbeth reported on 20 patients with rhinal glandular cancers in the country of High Wycombe in England, of whom 15 had worked in the furniture industries. Between 1967 and 1972, more elaborate information was provided and in 1969, the tumours were recognized as occupational disease. Numerous epidemiological and toxicological surveies of the carcinogenic consequence of wood dusts were published, which fundamentally confirmed the consequences obtained in England. In 1985, oak and beech wood dusts were classified as carcinogenic to worlds by Senate committee of the German Society for the promotion of Scientific Research ( Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft ) in Germany, and other wood dusts as suspected carcinogens. In 1999, hardwood dusts were classified as carcinogenic agents by the Commission of the European Union, on the footing of the IARC categorization of the carcinogenic potency of wood dusts in 199 5. A research undertaking was initiated to measure exposures happening in the wood industry consistently, and to understand better the manner of formation of glandular cancer of the olfactory organ. Epidemiologic surveies were excluded, as the figure of noxious agents was excessively great, and neither employers nor workers know precisely what type of agents were used, although the type and additives such as varnish, discolorations, gums and wood preservatives that are used are known, frequently the pretreatment of the wood is unknown Long-run experiments in which animate beings were exposed to inspiration seemed to be a suited method, provided that the malignant neoplastic diseases observed in worlds could be induced in research lab animate beings under comparable conditions. As the Numberss of agents was excessively big for systematic proving in such experiments, short-run surveies of toxicity and genotoxicity were carried out to function as a footing for the design of long term exper iments. Material used in the survey include Oakwood dust, because it is the most genotoxic of the wood tested ; the genotoxicity was tested with cyclohexane infusions. Wood preservatives incorporating lindane and pentachlorophenol ( PCP ) , because lindane was genotoxic in human nasal cells. Chromate is besides used, which is genotoxic, includes drawn-out rhinal clearance and, when used in wood preservatives, may take to dysplasia. Chromate has often been used in the wood-processing industry, peculiarly as K bichromate in discolorations but besides as a repair agent in wood preservatives A group exposed to N-nitrosodimethylamine ( NDMA ) served as positive controls, because rats exposed to certain nitrosamines are known to develop tumours of the rhinal pit. Exposure and animate being handling were performed harmonizing to the German Law on the Protection of Animals. The exposure tracts of rats to wood dusts and wood preservatives are such that all the coops of all seven experimental groups were rotated daily within their exposure boxes, harmonizing to a strategy documented for each group and twenty-four hours. When all exposed animate beings are considered together, the consequences go even more pronounced. Fatal respiratory piece of land tumours occurred in the five of 155 animate beings exposed to oak wood ( P = 0.08, Fischer trial, when compared with the negative control ) , in five of 102 animate beings exposed to chromate ( P = 0.03 ) and in two of 101 animate beings exposed to lindane and PCP ( P = 0.17 ) while such tumours were non seen in the 96 negative cont rols. These measurings in the terminal do non allow a decision about the extent to which chromate histories for the effects associated with exposure to oak and beech wood dust or for the epidemiologically ascertained regional fluctuations in tumorigenesis. More wood types from different parts will hold to be analyzed for chromate and compared.2.7 Minimizing dust emanation by the usage of tool geometry.Dust created in the machining of wood is a major job in the on the job environment. Minute wood atoms carried through the air make a serious wellness jeopardy, in utmost instances even taking to malignant neoplastic disease. In wood working industries, it has proved a jeopardy to workers wellness, particularly in the signifier of malignant neoplastic disease of the nasal and paranasal fistulas. A sum-up of probes of wood dust and the hazard of malignant neoplastic disease can be found in Nylander and Dement ( 1993 ) , where the writers states that secret agents in the wood working industry face a higher hazard of developing rhinal malignant neoplastic disease, particularly those working with machines that generate wood dust. An experimental survey did by J. Palmqvist et al. , 1999 on the influence of cutting informations and tool geometry in cut downing dust emanations at the beginning, that is at the tip of the tool. Method used on three different wood stuffs such as, pine, beech and fiberboard ( MDF ) . Specimens were processed in a miling machines where it was possible to change the film editing informations. The dust emanations from the tool ( defined here as atoms with a diameter less than 10 µm ) were measured. The parametric quantities altered in the experiments were moisture content of the wood, mean bit thickness, way of provender ( up or down ) and rake angle of the tool. The experiments showed that the mean bit thickness had the greatest influence on the sum of dust created when machining wood and wet content of the wood, a reasonably great influence, and while the way of the provender and and the profligate angle had small or no influence. The consequences show that dust emanations increase quickly when making a certain mean bit thickness. It is hence of import to cipher and command the mean bit thickness in order to minimise the dust emanation between the three wood tested.2.8 Routers and Sanders safety jeopardiesRouters are used for such intents such as cutting and determining cosmetic pieces, doing frame and panel doors, and miling moldings.. The tool-spindle axis is normally perpendicular, but it may be tilted. The operator lowers the caput for machining, and the caput automatically returns to its original place after the cut is made. Operators may be injured from accidental contact with the routing tool when managing stock or taking bit from the tabular array. Kickback is another common beginning of hurt among routers operators. Projections of tools can badly wound or kill router operators. Tools can be flung from the cutter caput if they are ill fastened in the tool holder, if the incorrect tool is used, or if th e tool velocity is excessively high ( A usher for protecting workers from woodworking jeopardies, 1999 ) Router with Adjustable Tool Guard should be used to protect the routers from serious hurt that is caused by crisp instrument in knife vesica. Other that it, equip routers with a spindle braking system that bit by bit engages. In the average clip, some tips on safe work patterns such as properly attach and secure toolsto the holder, and label cutting tool and holders with the maximal allowable spindle velocity. Drum sanders are people who finish stock by utilizing a coated scratchy surface to take stuff. A belt smoother uses a systems of blocks to travel scratchy stuff accross the stock. Either the wood is fed manually or automatically into the machine or the sanding belt is pressed toward the wood, which is located on a working tabular array ( A usher for protecting workers from woodworking jeopardies, 1999 ) . Drum sanders produce quite a considerable measure of all right wood dust. All smoothers should be carefully ventilated. The primary safety jeopardies of belt smoothers us that workers may catch their custodies, vesture or jewellery in the running axial rotations. Safety work patterns should be to replace lacerate, frayed, or exessively worn belts or membranophones. A raddled belt, disc or membranophone can do a monolithic heat buildup, which can do the belt, disc or membranophone to rupture or interrupt and bombard the environing country with its projected spots. It is besides of import to maintain custodies off from scratchy surfaces and sand on the downward-moving side of the disc or belt. . ( A usher for protecting workers from woodworking jeopardies, 1999 ) .Chapter 3: Methodology3.0 Entire dust aggregation utilizing MiniVol Portable Air Sampler.The MiniVol Air Sampler is an ambient air sampling station for particulate affair and non-reactive gas. The patented low flow engineerin g used in MiniVol was developed jointly by the U.S Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) and the Lane Regional Air Pollution Authority in an attempt to turn to the demand for portable air pollution trying engineering. MiniVol gives consequences near about as in mention air quality informations. Both precise and accurate, the battery operated, lightweight MiniVol is ideal for trying at distant countries or station web. The MiniVol can be configured to try for a similar mention station web. In the particulate affair ( PM ) trying manner, air is drawn through a atom size centrifuge and so through a filter medium. Particle size separation is achieved by impaction. Actual volumetric flow must be 5 litres per minute ( 5 L/m ) at ambient conditions. Impactors are available with a 10-micron cut -point ( PM10 ) and a 2.5-micron cut-point ( PM2.5 ) . Operating the sampling station without an impactor allows for aggregation of entire suspended affair ( TSP ) . 2 unit of Minivol is used in this undertaking. Both theoretical account is taken to site and operated at 5 litres per minute. First theoretical account of Minivol is situated sanding country where there were two sanding maestro machine and random orbital sanding procedure is taking topographic point. Second theoretical account of Minivol is situated at country of where routing of wood is taking topographic point. This research was carried out in three hebdomads in the month of November and December 2009. Total suspended atom ( TSP ) was collected in this two station. The location to put the Minivol unit was chosen based on the work processes which produce more dust. First station, in routing procedures, dust produced by the routing machines are coarser and more dust are collected by the pump. In the 2nd station, wood sanding procedure by machines and manus is the work processes that were assessed. Sandpapering utilizing machines are done to smoothen the portion of furniture which is non even or to do the furniture finer in quality which make it a better market value.EquipmentSampler:47-mm PVC, 2-5 µm pore size membrane or tantamount membrane filter and back uping tablet in 47mm cassette filter holder.Minivol Air sampling stationMicrobalance, capable of weighing to 0.001mg.Forceps ( sooner nylon )Preparation of filters.Equilibrate the filters in an environmentally controlled weighing country or chamber for at least 2 hours.Number the backup pads with a ballpen pen and topographic point them, numbered side down, in filter cassette bottom subdivisions.Weight the filters in an environmentally controlled country or chamber. The filter tare weight are record, W1 ( milligram ) .Zero the balance before weighing.Manage the filters with forceps.Assemble the filter in the filter cassettes and close firmly so that the escape around the filter will non happen.SamplingCalibrate each Minivol unit with a representative sampling station in line.Sample at 5 L/min for a entire sample of 10 L. Do non transcend a entire filter burden of about 2 milligrams entire dust.Sample readyingWipe dust from the external surface of the filter cassette with a damp paper towel to minimise taint. Discard the paper towel.Remove the top and bottom stoppers from the filter gently to avoid loss of dust.Calibration and Quality ControlZero the microbalance for weighing. Use the same microbalance for weighing filters before and after sample aggregation.MeasurementWeigh each filter. Record the station sampling weight, W2 ( milligram ) , in the air volume sampled. Record anything singular about the filter paper ( e.g. , overload, escape, wet torn, etc. )Calculations:Calculate the concentration of Entire dust particulate, C ( mg/m3 ) , in the air volume sampled, V ( L ) :C = ( W2-W1 ) ( milligram ) Volt: ( F1 + F2 ) x T V ( L )Time Leaden Average, TWA:Net dust weight ( milligram )=milligramFlow rate ( L/min ) x 0.001 ( m3/L ) ten clip ( min )M33.1 Respirable dust aggregation utilizing Personal Air Sampling Pump ( PASP )Respirable dust is the fraction of the entire dust that enters the gas exchange part of the lungs. 2 unit of personal sampling pump used on two specific workers that have lasting work displacement. The trying pump is worn on the neckband of the workers shirt, and is fastened by a limiter. Sampling pump that was used in this research is from the theoretical account Apex HB 3294-04. It uses an efficient stop pump whose flow rate is exactly maintained utilizing an automatic flow control circuit. The pump draws contaminated air through a sampling caput at a rate determined by the caput design or trying scheme. The Apex was developed to supply trying capablenesss between 5 ml/min and 5 l/min, suited for a broad scope of applications including solvent exhausts, asbestos clearance and personal sampling of dusts. Apex pumps are ideally suited to many of the Total and Respirable dust trying techniques detailed in U.K Health and Safety Executive publication MDHS14, and in other mention methods. The trying pump is operated at 2.2 L/min for Higgins-Dewell cyclone, for 8 hr daily for three hebdomads, from 8am to 5pm, working clip in the mill. The workers are chosen based on the wood processes that they do. The mill does non give its workers revolving occupation mundane, therefore it is easier to try on one individual for the whole twenty-four hours making the same work for an norm of 8 hours. Respirable dust is more of the sum of dust that enters the gas exchange part of the lung, therefore it is a really of import index of how the lung system can be affected by utilizing this instrument.EquipmentSampling station:Filter: 5.0  µm pore size, polyvinyl chloride filter or tantamount hydrophobic membrane filter supported by a cassette filter holderCyclone: 10-mm nylon, Higgins-Dewell ( BGI Inc. , 58 Guinan St. Waltham, MA 02153 ) ( 7 ) or tantamount.Personal Sampling pump, 2.2 L/min + 5 % for HD cyclone with flexible linking tube.Balance, analytical with sensitiveness of 0.001mg.Forceps ( sooner nylon )Environmental chamber or room for balance.Preparation of filters.Equilibrate the filters in an environmentally controlled weighing country or chamber for at least 2 hours.Number the backup pads with a ballpen pen and topographic point them, numbered side down, in filter cassette bottom subdivisions.Weight the filters in an environmentally controlled country or chamber. The fil ter tare weight are record, W1 ( milligram ) .Zero the balance before weighing.Manage the filters with forceps.Assemble the filter in the filter cassettes and close firmly so that the escape around the filter will non happen.Remove the cyclone ‘s grit cap before usage and inspect the cyclone inside. If the interior is visibly scored, fling this cyclone since the dust separation features of the cyclone may be altered. Clean the inside of the cyclone to forestall entrainment of big atoms.Assemble the sampling station caput. Check alliance of filter holder and cyclone in the trying caput to forestall escape.SamplingCalibrate each personal sampling pump to the appropriate flow rate with a representative sampling station in line.Sample 45 min to 8 hr. Make non transcend 5 mg dust lading on the filter.Sample readyingRemove the top and bottom stoppers from the filter cassette. Equilibrate 2 hr in an environment controlled country or chamber.Calibration and Quality ControlWeigh each f ilter. Record this post-sampling weight, W2 ( milligram ) .Calculations:Calculate the concentration of Entire dust particulate, C ( mg/m3 ) , in the air volume sampled, V ( L ) : C = ( W2-W1 ) ( milligram ) Volt: ( F1 + F2 ) x T V ( L )Time Leaden Average, TWA:Net dust weight ( milligram )=milligramFlow rate ( L/min ) x 0.001 ( m3/L ) ten clip ( min )M33.2 Data Analysis.The consequences is analysed utilizing Independent samples T-test on both Total dust value and Respirable dust value. The consequences informations collected for Entire dust and respirable dust in station 1 and station 2 concentration is besides analyzed utilizing Mann-Kendall Trend analysis. Mann-Kendall tendency analysis is a non-parametric trial for indentifying tendency in clip series informations. The trial compares the comparative magnitudes of sample informations instead than the informations values themselves. ( Gilbert. , 1987 ) . One benefit of this trial is that the informations need non conform to any peculiar distribution. Furthermore, informations reported as non-detects can be included by delegating them a common value that is smaller than the smallest mensural value in the information set. The procedurethat will be described i n the subsequent paragraphs assumes that there exists merely one informations valueper clip period. When multiple informations points exist for a individual clip period, the average value is used.3.3 Questionnaire on Occupational exposure to wood dust.The degree of exposure to wood dust is observed through a list of questionnaire to the estimated 30 % of entire workers in the mill. The study was distributed to 30 workers who work for full displacement of 8 working hours for the same everyday work procedures in the mill. Due to linguistic communication barrier among the workers from foreign states such as Bangladesh, Nepal, Vietnam and Indonesia, the questionnaire can merely be used through Bahasa Malaysia as the chief medium. The questionnaire distributed consisted of 3 parts, where first portion covers the personal information ( butir-butir peribadi ) of the workers such as the gender, age, weight, tallness, race and on the job clip. It besides covers on the past business of workers, how long have they work in the current mill and in the yesteryear as good. Separate 2 screens on the past work topographic point status, the environmental scene in which they work, and besides the erosion of Personal Protective Equipment such as mask, safety boots, suited working dress, safety goggles. Part 3 screens their on the job status in their current work topographic point. Same inquiry as proposed to portion 2, but an add-on smoke wont during work clip, and besides current industrial pattern on the cleanliness of dust emanation. A sum of 30 questionnaire were distributed to the workers involved in the mill chosen by choosing workers that are straight involved in this survey, that is routing and sanding procedures. Consequences from respondent are utilizing an analytical tool called Statistical Package for Social Sciences ( SPSS ) version 17.0.3.4 Location of surveyThis survey is carried out in Muar which is The town of Muar is located at 2 °3?N102 °34?E, at the oral cavity of the Muar River. The town is about 150 kilometers ( 93 stat mis ) sou'-east of Malaysia ‘s capitalKuala Lumpur, and about the same distance ( 179 kilometer ) northwest ofSingapore. It is 45km south ofMalacca Town. It is besides 50 kilometers north ofBatu Pahat. Beginning: www.maps.google.com.my Figure 3.1: Location of Muar, Johor. The mill is located at Parit Jamil industrial zone, Muar. There are 100 workers in production line based in the mill, where 60 % are foreign workers coming from Vietnam, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Myanmar and local Malaysian. The mill operates from Monday to Saturday except for public vacations and Sunday. There are 5 section including Management squad where all the wood is process by modeling, determining, routing to finally do out a all right quality furniture. Below are some of the figures of wood procedures that are done in the mill.Chapter 4: Consequence AND DISCUSSION4.0 Independent samples T-test on Total dust for sanding and routing.The sum suspended atoms informations collected for routing and sanding procedures in the two Stationss was analyzed utilizing SPSS for independent samples T-test on Total dust for the two independent variables, sanding and routing. The chief intent of running the information utilizing T-test is tests the significance of the difference between t he two sample agencies. Hypothesiss: Nothing: the mean of two group are non significantly different Surrogate: the agencies of the two group are significantly different T-Test Based on Table 4.1, the average value of 1.6645mg/m3 for sanding procedures is higher than 1.5051mg/m3 from routing procedures. This means that on norm, sanding procedure output higher entire dust concentration than routing procedure in 17 workers from both Stationss. Therefore based on the average consequences, the void hypotheses is accepted. Table 4.1: Group statistics for Total Suspended Particles in sanding and routing.StationNitrogenMeanStandard DeviationStandard Error MeanSum Suspended AtomsRouting171.5051.92566.22451Sandpapering171.6645.74017.17952T-Test for Total suspended atoms. Premises: 1: Sanding and routing procedures have about equal discrepancy on the dependent variables. 2: Sanding and routing procedures are independent on one another. Based on Table 4.2: The consequences for Levene ‘s trial for equality of discrepancy is that we accept our first premise that is sanding and routing procedures have about equal discrepancy because the value of significance is 0.557 which is greater than 0.05. Therefore the two discrepancy value is non significantly different. Table 4.2: Levene ‘s Test for equality of discrepancies for Total Suspended Particles.Levene ‘s Test for Equality of DiscrepanciesFSig.Sum Suspended AtomsEqual discrepancies assumed.353.557Equal discrepancies non assumedFrom the Table 4.3, Independent samples of t-test shown in equal discrepancies assumed from Levene ‘s trial, it can be conclude from the t value of -0.555 with grade of freedom 32, at important degree of 0.05, there is no important difference between the sanding and routing procedures. The sum of Entire dust produced in the sanding procedure is non significantly different from entire dust from routing procedure. Entire dust is collected from the dust that has accumulated in the ambient air, so it can non be measured specifically from which beginning the dust is coming from. Wind way, comparative humidness and different work undertaking done in same station may impact the motion of this all right dust atoms traveling approximately in the air. Table 4.3: Independent samples t-test for Total Suspended Particlest-test for Equality of MeansTdfSig. ( 2-tailed )Average DifferenceSum Suspended AtomsEqual discrepancies assumed-.55532.583-.15941Equal discrepancies non assumed-.55530.523.583-.159414.1 Independent Samples T-test on Respirable dust for sanding and routing.Based on table 4.4, the average value of 4.4865 for sanding procedures is higher than 2.7509 from routing procedures. This mean on norm, repirable dust on workers is higher in the sanding processes than routing procedures. Table 4.4: Group statistics for respirable dust on sanding and routing procedure.PersonNitrogenMeanStandard DeviationStandard Error MeanRespirableSandpapering174.48651.83743.44564Routing172.7509.81998.19887Based on table 4.5, for respirable dust, the two groups that is sanding and routing has about equal discrepancy for the two dependent variables. And the consequence shows that the important value is greater than 0.05 which is 0.260 which means that they are non significantly different. Table 4.5: Levene ‘s Test for equality of discrepancies for Respirable dustLevene ‘s Test for Equality of DiscrepanciesFSig.RespirableEqual discrepancies assumed1.316.260Equal discrepancies non assumedIn table 4.6, through Levene ‘s trial that the discrepancies are about equal, t value of 3.557 with 32 grade of freedom, at 0.05 important degree, it shows that there is important different in the sum of repirable dust from routing and sanding procedure. Respirable dust is the sum of dust measured in the take a breathing zone of the workers, which means it can mensurate the sum of dust that is inhaled into the lung by take a breathing the air indoors. This is an of import indicant to demo how much different wood working procedure produces different consequence on workers. Table 4.6: Independent samples t-test for Respirable dustt-test for Equality of MeansTdfSig. ( 2-tailed )Average DifferenceStd. Error DifferenceRespirable dustEqual discrepancies assumed3.55732.0011.73559.48800Equal discrepancies non assumed3.55722.130.0021.73559.488004.2 Mann-Kendall Trend analysis of entire dust.Wood dust informations collected during 3 hebdomads of monitoring is divided into two Stationss of wood procedure, that is wood sanding and routing procedure. The entire dust collected for 3 hebdomads is tested to see the correlativity between the clip puting and variables for sanding and routing procedure. Based on table 4.7, the Mann-Kendall tau correlativity coefficient is 0.603. This positive value show an increasing tendency to Total dust value for sanding station. Table 4.7: Mann Kendall analysis for correlativity trial entire dust station1.Kendall ‘s tau Correlation TestUS Geological Survey, 2005Datas set: Example Totaldust values – Mann-Kendall trial, input type 4The tau correlativity coefficient is 0.603S = 82.omega = 3.337P = 0.0008The relation may be described by the equation:Y = 0.43264 + 0.1206 * TenTo back up this consequence, based on figure 4.1, it can be seen that there is a important addition for the 2nd hebdomad ( 14th Dec to 19th Dec 09 ) during this clip period, the concentration of entire dust rise from 1.995 mg/m3 to 2.175mg/m3 ) . For the undermentioned hebdomad, 21st Dec 09 to 26th Dec 09, there is a crisp addition in twenty-four hours 4 of reading, on the 23rd Dec 09, the value recorded was 3.804 mg/m3. This unusual reading may come as a consequence of the air current velocity, weave way and sum of wood being sanded throughout the twenty-four hours. There is a lessening of 2.286 mg/m3 for the last two twenty-four hours of monitoring. The sums of wood dust concentration have decrease due to alter in air current velocity and comparative humidness in the ambiance. High value of comparative humidness can do the air going more concentrated with the dust atoms and when the air current blows, it carries the dust around the ambient air inside the mill. Another factor that contributes to the high emanation of dust in the sanding procedure at station 1 in the 3rd hebdomad of monitoring is due to the usage of machines particularly the usage of two sanding maestro machine which is operated at different velocity and due to the different sum of dust generated by different wood usage, its difficult to command the emanation of dust manually by utilizing vacuity or brushing the floor. This may therefore even do the work topographic point dustier and difficult to maintain it clean. Based on table 4.8: the Mann-Kendall tau correlativity coefficient is 0.691. This positive value shows an increasing tendency for entire dust in station 2. Meanwhile, at 0.05 assurance interval, chance of 0.0001 which means there is important difference in the value of wood dust in station 2 reading every bit good. Table 4.8: Mann Kendall analysis for correlativity trial on Entire dust station 2Kendall ‘s tau Correlation TestUS Geological Survey, 2005Datas set: Example Totaldust values – Mann-Kendall trial, input type 4The tau correlativity coefficient is 0.691S = 94.omega = 3.831P = 0.0001The relation may be described by the equation:Y = 0.74132 + 0.1287 *TenThe graph shown in Figure 4.2 is monitored in station 2. The graph shows a positive increase in hebdomad 1, hebdomad 2 and hebdomad 3 of monitoring. In hebdomad 1, the value of entire dust does non increase significantly but on hebdomad 2, there were steadily increase over the whole hebdomad and this form continue until hebdomad 3 where the highest reading is on the 22nd Dec 09, 2.270 mg/m3. The lowest value was recorded in 18th Nov 09 where the reading is 0.561 mg/m3.The consequence shown in the graph comparing to Figure 1 is non as important in station 1. This is because at station 2, the entire dust concentration in the ambient air is affected by the usage of operating expense piping system where it is used to hoover out all the dust generated by machines and in each compartment, there are besides less dust accumulated throughout the work topographic point.4.3 Mann-Kendall tendency analysis on respirable dust.Table 4.9 shows the consequence end product for respirable dust on electrical orbital sanding procedure. The tau correlativity coefficient is 0.463 and this suggests that there is a positive increasing tendency shown in orbital sanding. Table 4.9: Mann Kendall analysis for Respirable dust on wood sanding procedure.Kendall ‘s tau Correlation TestEssay Writing Service Fully referenced, delivered on clip, Essay Writing Service.Assignment Writing Service Everything we do is focussed on composing the best possible assignment for your exact demandsTaging Service Our Marking Service will assist you pick out the countries of your work that need betterment.View our servicesFree APA Referencing Tool Create your 6th Edition APA mentions rapidly, easy and for free!Free Harvard Referencing Tool Our free online Harvard Referencing Tool makes citing easy.Free Vancouver Referencing Tool Get aid with your Vancouver referencing with our free online tool.Free Study Guides Everything you need to cognize during your surveiesTopographic point an order now Our experts are waiting to assist you with your essayOur experts can assist you with your essay inquiryGet down your orderNo thanksRequest RemovalIf you are the original author of this essay and no longer wish to hold the essay published on the UK Essays web site so delight chink on the nexus below to bespeak remotion:Request the remotion of this essay

Water Shotage Around the World Essay Example

Water Shotage Around the World Essay Example Water Shotage Around the World Essay Water Shotage Around the World Essay Humans consume water, discard it, poison it and waste it without considering the consequences. Supplying enough water in the right quantity, at the right time and in the right place has always been a concern. All of life depends on water. It is as important to life as air, food and sunlight. For this reason water has always played an important role in civilizations throughout history. People can live for days without food but will not survive for very long without water. The problem with water is that there is the same amount now as there was in pre-historic times and no way to make anymore of it.As the citizens of Chennai have been witnessing over the past few years, the city is still in the grip of an acute water shortage. Two of the rain-fed lakes that meet the citys needs- Poondi and Red hills- have severely depleted storage owing to the failure of the southwest monsoon and the northeast monsoon last year and a third, sholavaram, is dry. Tanker trucks pressed into service by the Chennai Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board (CMWSSB) and those run by private operators are trying to meet the peoples daily needs, at least partially.The people of chennai get 35 liters of water per capita in the best of times. The poor, the majority of them living in slums, are the worst- affected. They depend entirely on the water supply systems. Groundwater is the citys major water source now; It is drawn mainly from the well-fields in the Araniyar- Kortakaiyar basin and the aquifer between tiruvanmiyur and Muttukadu along the coast of south Chennai. Groundwater extraction is reaching its limits. According to the Central Groundwater Board, 80% of Chennais groundwater has been depleted and any further exploration could lead to salt water ingression.The assured yield from groundwater sources is estimated at 190 million liters per day (mld); of this, 158 mld has been tapped already. During the past century, the World population has tripled, and water use has increased six- fold. These changes have come at great environmental cost: half the wetlands have disappeared during the twentieth century; some rivers dont reach the sea and twenty percent of the freshwater fish are endangered. These environmental consequences also entail social and economic costs.While agriculture uses more and more water every year, to meet the food demands of a growing population, other users are competing for the same water: more people means more energy required and more hydropower. Especially in the western world, industrialization has had serious and often negative effects n water quality; currently global markets move the most polluting industries to the developing countries, usually near cities where population growth and illegal settlements already put a lot of pressure on water resources.In 2020, 60% of the Worlds population will be urban, a concentration that makes urban water infrastructure development an extremely urgent issue. These are but one of the factors influe ncing the worlds water resources, complicated by the fact that they are interlinked, and cant be approached separately. The projections are grim: around the world over the next twenty years, the average supply of water per person is expected to drop by a third and it already is in short supply.The United States projects that by the middle of the next century, at least two billion people in sixty countries- depending on factors such as population growth and climate change – will be seriously short of water. In the meantime, the water quality will worsen due to pollution and rising temperatures. Growing populations, wastage of water, inefficient irrigation and pollution exert pressure on this resource. Pollution and wastage are the primary threats to this resource, both of which we as human beings are responsible for.Water shortage and degradation is a growing concern for many countries including the United States. Drinking water protection is a big responsibility that involves government, business and individuals. Everyone has an important role in trying to protect the supply of water. Water is a vital necessity that all people need in order to survive. Without water, people could only go a few days to a few months before having serious health problems or even death. One of the major concerns regarding water is if there will be enough water for the demand within the next 25 to 50 years.With the help of agencies, scientists and experts, we as people may see that there will be a shortage of water in the years to come. Today in the world the leading cause of the water shortage is the rising demand for water for the industries and agriculture (George, 1). On the earth today there is no more freshwater than there was 2,000 years ago. Then the population was 3% of what it is today (Knight, 1). In 31 countries around the world that contains near a half a billion people face water shortage with the most severe being in the Middle East and Africa.By the year 2025 it is estimated that another 17 countries will be added to that list. Some researchers believe that also be the year 2025, 35% or 2. 8 billion people will face shortage. There are different reasons and causes of what continues to cause a shortage of water. Some of the water is being contaminated with pollutants. Agriculture is the biggest polluter in which the pollutants come from the fertilizers and pesticides used on the crops. The industries and municipal pollutions are also a factor. In some countries 90 to 9

How to Calculate Percent Error

How to Calculate Percent Error Percent error or percentage error expresses as a percentage the difference between an approximate or measured value and an exact or known value. It is used in science to report the difference between a measured or experimental value and a true or exact value. Here is how to calculate percent error, with an example calculation. Key Points: Percent Error The purpose of a percent error calculation is to gauge how close a measured value is to a true value.Percent error (percentage error) is the difference between an experimental and theoretical value, divided by the theoretical value, multiplied by 100 to give a percent.In some fields, percent error is always expressed as a positive number. In others, it is correct to have either a positive or negative value. The sign may be kept to determine whether recorded values consistently fall above or below expected values.Percent error is one type of error calculation. Absolute and relative error are two other common calculations. Percent error is part of a comprehensive error analysis.The keys to reporting percent error correctly are to know whether or not to drop the sign (positive or negative) on the calculation and to report the value using the correct number of significant figures. Percent Error Formula Percent error is the difference between a measured and known value, divided by the known value, multiplied by 100%. For many applications, percent error is expressed as a positive value. The absolute value of the error is divided by an accepted value and given as a percent. |accepted value - experimental value| \ accepted value x 100% For chemistry and other sciences, it is customary to keep a negative value. Whether error is positive or negative is important. For example, you would not expect to have positive percent error comparing actual to theoretical yield in a chemical reaction. If a positive value was calculated, this would give clues as to potential problems with the procedure or unaccounted reactions. When keeping the sign for error, the calculation is the experimental or measured value minus the known or theoretical value, divided by the theoretical value and multiplied by 100%. percent error [experimental value - theoretical value] / theoretical value x 100% Percent Error Calculation Steps Subtract one value from another. The order does not matter if you are dropping the sign, but you subtract the theoretical value from the experimental value if you are keeping negative signs. This value is your error.Divide the error by the exact or ideal value (not your experimental or measured value). This will yield a decimal number.Convert the decimal number into a percentage by multiplying it by 100.Add a percent or % symbol to report your percent error value. Percent Error Example Calculation In a lab, you are given a block of aluminum. You measure the dimensions of the block and its displacement in a container of a known volume of water. You calculate the density of the block of aluminum to be 2.68 g/cm3. You look up the density of a block of aluminum at room temperature and find it to be 2.70 g/cm3. Calculate the percent error of your measurement. Subtract one value from the other:2.68 - 2.70 -0.02Depending on what you need, you may discard any negative sign (take the absolute value): 0.02This is the error.Divide the error by the true value:0.02/2.70 0.0074074Multiply  this value by 100% to obtain the percent error:0.0074074 x 100% 0.74% (expressed using 2 significant figures).Significant figures are important in science. If you report an answer using too many or too few, it may be considered incorrect, even if you set up the problem properly. Percent Error Versus Absolute and Relative Error Percent error is related to absolute error and relative error. The difference between an experimental and known value is the absolute error. When you divide that number by the known value you get relative error. Percent error is relative error multiplied by 100%. Sources Bennett, Jeffrey; Briggs, William (2005),  Using and Understanding Mathematics: A Quantitative Reasoning Approach  (3rd ed.), Boston: Pearson.Tà ¶rnqvist, Leo; Vartia, Pentti; Vartia, Yrjà ¶ (1985), How Should Relative Changes Be Measured?,  The American Statistician,  39  (1): 43–46.

The Argument in Favor of Arabic in Qatari Schools Term Paper

The Argument in Favor of Arabic in Qatari Schools - Term Paper Example Those who are elated believe that this is a â€Å"validation of their mother tongue† (Huge Response), while those who are opposed are incredibly worried about the job opportunities for graduates, as well as the universities international accreditation (Compromising). Thought his decision is doubtless controversial, it is also incredibly necessary – Qatar university has been bowing to international pressures and dissatisfying its student population for too long with its regressive insistence that all courses, regardless of subject, be taught in Arabic. This decision takes important choices out of the hands of students, where they belong. Probably the single most important reason to back this decision is that it further empowers students at the university to be in control of their own education. Previous to this decision, it was necessary for everyone entering the university to pass an English aptitude test (Arabic vs English), and those who failed to do so would have to spend one or more years on their English aptitude before being admitted. This is an incredibly foolish decision, as it forces every student, regardless of their particular need or career aspiration to undergo what could be for them unnecessary training. There is nothing stopping members of Qatar University who will need specialized English training to accomplish their goals in their careers from taking those English courses, yet this stops the wasteful practice of forcing someone who, for instance, is certain they want to achieve a career in the Qatari government, from learning a language that will not be useful to them. Beyond simply giving those who do not need specialized English the opportunity to learn without forcing themselves to learn a foreign tongue, this decision also provides more freedom for those who do wish to learn English as part of their education. Previously, such English abilities were a prerequisite to taking any class at the university. Now, students can choose when and how to be able to strengthen their English skills – they can do it before they attend the university, as they would have had to do under the previous system, but they can also now choose to take English classes along with their other studies, or even examine their job prospects after graduation, and then take additional English as necessary. When one examines the subjects covered by this decision, it simply makes good sense. The subjects now taught in Arabic will be â€Å"Law, Media Studies, Business Administration and International Affairs† – which all make sense to be taught in Arabic. Though in the 1980s it might have been necessary to speak English to succeed in those areas, more and more Arabic will be the norm as Arab countries grow more powerful and prominent on the international stage. Why, for instance, would someone studying Qatari law need to speak English? The law they will be studying and practicing is written in Arabic. Furthermore, more and more international corporations are establishing Arabic as a language of commerce so English requirements are less stringent than they used to be. Finally, a majority of students support this decision – by about twenty percent (Huge Response). It is understandable that many people think speaking English will be helpful on the job front and on the international stage – but this does not mean that it should be a required course for students at Qatar University. The job prospects of Americans would certainly be improved if they had knowledge of